Coaching at a developmental level: informed practices are not limited to teaching

Youn’s doctoral research explores the impact of STEM outreach programmes, as part of the Lord Bhattacharya Engineering Education Programme (LBEEP). Youn hopes that his research will aid the impact evaluation of LBEEP and provide a blueprint for future outreach programmes. He is particularly interested in informal and signature pedagogies as well as the learning environment that they take place in. Youn has been a Graduate Teaching Assistant in WMG for over a year and is the current women’s coach at UWHC. Abstract In this article, I reflect on a semester of coaching handball at the University of Warwick. Discussions revolve around creating a training session plan, delivering a training session, and coaching participants with differing goals. I hope to introduce developmental sports coaching in the context of university societies to an academic audience and showcase an alternative pathway to teaching for the PGR community.


Background
Handball is a contact sport played between two teams; each team consists of six outfield players and one goalkeeper. The goal of the game is to outscore your opponents, within the time limit (Two thirty minutes halves for official games, often shortened to one half of twenty minutes at developmental level) (see EHA, 2018 for more details on handball). I have now played handball for five years as a goalkeeper.
Last semester (Spring 2022), I took on the role of Women's Captain at Warwick Handball Club (UWHC), and one of my main duties is to lead training and fitness sessions. Table 1 shows the sessions in a typical week, all of which occurred at the University of Warwick's Sports and Wellness Hub (University of Warwick, 2022a). I usually lead at least one training session as well as a fitness session, as part of a four-person coaching team.
One of the reasons I took on this role was to enhance my teaching skills as I view sports coaching and teaching to be very similar. I also wanted to embed some teaching practices from my role as a Graduate Teaching Assistant (GTA) into coaching, such as the use of a lesson plan and assistive technological tools.

Introduction
Sports coaching at a developmental (or beginner) level is a fine balancing act between introducing beginners to a new sport and pushing for improvement from more experienced members and ultimately winning (Arce & Arce-Trigatti, 2000). This is the precarious task that sports societies coaches are faced with at the University of Warwick. Due to societies being entirely student-led, such coaching is carried out mainly by students, on a voluntary basis, without pedagogical guidance (It is worth noting that a few "popular" sports such as swimming and football have paid coaches) (WarwickSU, 2022). This is despite the parallels between sports coaching and teaching, including the skills required of a sports coach or teacher to succeed in their respective role, such as effective communication, and the focus of both being acquisition and/or application of knowledge and/or skills (Penney, 2006;Jones, 2007;Cassidy et al., 2008;Evans, 2010).
Coaching in university societies is a long-standing practice and one that is common across UK universities. However, informal sports coaching offered in university societies is underexplored in the literature. In this article, I draw on my experience as a GTA in Warwick Manufacturing Group (WMG) and reflective practices I have developed in the APP PGR course to showcase coaching from a pedagogical lens (University of Warwick, 2022b).

Training session preparation
To ensure a successful training session, adequate preparation is required. In sections 3.1-3.3, I provide an account of session preparation as well as some of the key aspects/dimensions to take into consideration whilst doing so. My preparation for leading a training session involves three key elements: 1. Engage with online material, 2. Create a (training) session plan (see Appendix 1), 3. Communicate with other captains.

Engage with online material
From my experience, I cannot stress enough how beneficial it is to engage with online material as a coach. I usually scour handball dedicated pages on Instagram as well as official websites, such as the International Handball Federation (IHF) and England Handball Association (EHA), for drills, tactics, and warm-up routines before creating a session plan (EHA, 2022;Instagram, 2022;IHF, 2022). Recently, I discovered a mobile device application, called HomeCourt (Nex, 2022). HomeCourt was originally designed for basketball practice and one of its uses is to improve one's reflexes. Reflex is one of the fundamental attributes of a handball goalkeeper (Struzik, 2020;Salhe et al., 2021). To innovate, I trialled the app with goalkeepers at a training session. There was some initial reluctance as using such an app was a novelty for participants. Besides, the app requires some calibration which can be cumbersome. However, in subsequent sessions, participants were more receptive to using the app and the app is now integral to our goalkeeper-specific training, which occurs weekly during the drills phase of a training session (see the following section) whereby goalkeepers and outfield players train separately. An additional benefit of the app is that it enables multiple players to practice simultaneously, given all participants have a mobile device, whereas traditional exercises require rotation of goalkeepers.

Create a training session plan
It is not a requirement to create a session plan. However, session planning helps mitigate some of the obstacles that may be encountered when delivering a session. Moreover, a written version is a useful reminder when delivering a session. The structure of my session plan (see Appendix 1) includes learning objectives (highlighted in yellow), coaching/learning activities (highlighted in green), strategies to check participants' understanding (highlighted in blue) and coaching aids (highlighted in orange). My session plan is thus very similar to a lesson plan, as described by Milkova (2012), both in structure and use. One notable alteration is that I usually divide coaching/learning activities into three phases: 1. Warm-up: This phase is a choice between "boring" stretching (see "Dynamic stretches" and "Static stretches" in Appendix 1) which reduces the risk of injuries and "fun" exercises (usually playing another sport such as basketball or a game such as "Tag" at a leisurely pace) that increases participants' motivation from the onset. In the interest of time management, I divide warm-ups into two further sections in the Dividing a session plan in this way is mainly due to personal preference; it reminds me to cater for each phase adequately and to exert better time management when delivering a session.
Beyond the structure, there are three key aspects I take into consideration when creating a session plan:

Communicate with other captains
There are three other captains who coach alongside me. The coaching arrangement is similar to two types of co-teaching models, depending on the context: 1. Across sessions: As there are multiple training sessions a week, different sessions may be led by different captains. This is similar to sequential teaching, whereby individuals lead different lesson phases (Cook & Friend, 1995;Scruggs et al., 2007). Constant communication is required within the team as continuity is desirable across sessions. Indeed, to ensure learning objectives for a particular session are met, they usually need to be revisited or built upon in the following session due to time constraints (see Appendix 1). In practice, this translates to using an online group chat to share resources, ideas, and lesson plans amongst other agendas.

Within sessions: Session leaders
usually require the assistance of other captain(s) to deliver a successful session. Assisting a session includes coaching one half of a session during warm-up and drills (which can be harder when the session is designed by someone else) and refereeing for a segment of game practice. This is similar to the assistant teaching model whereby a teacher has an assistant, such as a GTA, to perform various tasks including technical support (Simons et al., 2020). This arrangement is agreed upon prior to sessions. It is always preferable to have a face-to-face meeting before such a session to ensure everyone is on the same page. This meeting is also beneficial for team morale and ensures whoever is leading the session to feel well supported.
Ultimately, this arrangement allows the four of us to carry out this coaching role along with our other commitments and to prepare adequately for sessions due to the reduced workload. However, it has its own challenges, namely that of interdependence between captains and a complex management of tasks, especially when they cannot be equally

distributed. Simons et al. (2020) also
reported such challenges in similar coteaching models.

Leading a training session
Leading a training session is a way to showcase all the preparation that precedes it. However, as a session occurs in an informal learning environment, there are more uncertainties than one would expect whilst teaching in the classroom. In this section, I narrate and explain a ninetyminute training session, as described in the exemplar template (see Appendix 1) from the lens of a coach (leading the session). It builds on some of the aspects I have introduced in the previous section.

Build up
It's always important to start a training session with a positive mindset and lead from the beginning. Personally, this translates into arriving at the Sports and Wellness Hub fifteen minutes before the start of a session. In that time, I will gather the equipment (such as balls, training cones and First-aid box) needed for the day and wait outside the sports hall (training venue). This provides an opportunity to welcome and engage with participants, especially if it is their first time.

Warm up
I ensure that we are five minutes into a session before carrying out the formal introduction of the coaching team and the session. This allows everyone ample time to get ready (and get the chit-chats out of the way). This "formal start" is crucial to setting the tone for the session. Thus, I try my best to be assertive during the introduction. There is a balance to be struck between being approachable and ensuring some formality to the session, depending on the composition of participants (i.e., be more approachable if the session is predominantly new participants).
For this exemplar session's initial warmup, stretches are chosen over exercises. I personally prefer stretches, as they can be targeted to specific muscles and reduce the risk of injury (see Behm & Chaouachi, 2011 for more details on stretching and how to optimise stretching to avoid injuries). Another aspect is that stretching gives more control to the coach; for example, it is easier to adhere to the time structure I have set out in the session plan.
However, it requires more attention than exercises. During the initial (stretches) warm-up, my role is to not only showcase stretches but also to constantly adjust the pace and selection of stretches in such a way that everyone can easily follow. Based on personal experience, I know that one can feel isolated if they cannot keep up with a group especially from the start of a session.
Following this phase of the warm-up, and a short break, the group is divided into two for a handball-specific warmup. This mainly involves shooting at the goal and allows goalkeepers to warm up their hands (in the literal sense). The group is randomly split into two to speed up this phase as only one goalkeeper can warm-up at a time and we usually have five to six goalkeepers.
During this stage, I encourage participants as much as possible as it can be demoralising to miss a shot on goal.

Drills
The drills phase is usually thirty to forty minutes. Moves that are covered in this exemplar session are called "crosses" (see EHA, 2018 for more details on crosses). Participants are in groups of three for this move, and beginners are paired with more experienced members. The key to crosses is constant communication between players as it involves interchanging of positions within a group. It is tricky to coach this move to beginners as on one hand I want participants to take their own initiative and independency but on the other hand I have to factor in that participant might not feel comfortable to interact with others. Thus, I will usually adjust my level of input across groups in this phase. This scenario is akin to teaching a mixed abilities class, whereby there is an extra emphasis on teaching to be learner-centred (see next section for further discussion) (Hallam & Ireson, 2005).
Another aspect I monitor is repetition of drills. If a drill is performed too little, participants do not master a move but too much time spent can end up with participants losing interest. Here, I will use a drink break whenever I deem appropriate to extend the interest of participants. Moreover, towards the end of the drill phase, I like to give participants more autonomy; I usually encourage "free play" scenarios.

Game practice and aftermath
Finally, the game practice consists of a handball game, which lasts between fifteen to twenty minutes. In this phase I perform two roles simultaneously, acting as both a coach and a referee. My role as a coach involves making substitutions, which is crucial in ensuring every participant has equal playing time (as handball is limited to 14 players at a time), whilst refereeing mimics a match scenario and avoids disputes. However, the game practice is perhaps the most enjoyable phase for participants, and it is very rewarding as a coach to watch moves being put into practice.
The last five minutes of a session are reserved for club announcements, usually regarding social activities and friendlies. At the end of the session, my last task is to ensure that equipment is packed safely into the allocated lockers.

Reflections on a semester of coaching
My first aspect of reflection is a learnercentred approach to coaching. There has been a recent recognition of this approach in both coaching and teaching, which allows for a more holistic development of learners, by embedding transferable skills such as teamwork, as it is more engaging and flexible than "traditional" approaches, which tend to be prescriptive (Felder & Brent, 2009;Nelson et al., 2014). In this context, a learner-centred approach could also aid to constructively align session aims beyond the sport, to wider student outcomes in higher education.
On occasions, I have inadvertently adopted this approach, by trying to be as flexible as possible when it comes to session planning to accommodate for participants of different experience and abilities. I have also provided one-onone support and adjusted my coaching approach (e.g., level of input during drills, pace of delivery throughout a session) on numerous occasions.
However, in the lead up to tournaments, it has been challenging to accommodate beginners into training sessions, especially as this was a low percentage of participants. Whilst beginners would be supported throughout a session (see next paragraph), the complexity of drills would perhaps be too advanced. Going forward, we would like to mitigate similar situations. For instance, another captain has created an introductory playbook which beginners can then use to familiarise themselves before attending a session. I am also open to more practical approaches such as separating participants in smaller groups during a session and altering drills to accommodate for this.
Another aspect worth reflecting upon is the informal interactions between paired beginners and experienced players during sessions, akin to peer learning in teaching. Currently, beginners are paired with more experienced members (usually another captain or executive member, selected during session planning) at the start of a session (for one-on-one help), especially when participants are predominantly experienced. However, the gap in experience and ability between paired peers can have a negative impact on both individuals. The more experienced peer may feel they are being held back by their partner which may result in discontent within the team, whilst beginners may compare themselves to their experienced partner which may result in self-doubt of their own abilities. Ultimately, this may lead to lower retention of beginners and perpetuates a divide between participants based on abilities. This goes against the ethos of UWHC and the university.
Topping (2005) acknowledges similar issues with peer learning that are implemented without contextual considerations. Considerations include characteristics of the "helper" and if peer learning is enforced or voluntary (ibid.). In this instance, a mentoring training session would be useful to offer "helpers" guidance with peer learning. Bryant & Terborg (2008) and Lewis et al., (2021) note an improvement in selfefficacy amongst participants that experienced mentor training. This improvement then leads on to a better performance in the respective "teaching" role (Lewis et al., 2021).
My first semester of coaching was full of ups and downs. From the women's team winning the summer cup tournament to the men's team losing in the "final" and training sessions going slightly wrong at times. All in all, it has been a rewarding experience that has boosted my confidence in both teaching and coaching going into this academic year. I hope to draw upon the experience of coaching within a team when co-teaching and to incorporate student-centred approaches such as PBL into my teaching.

Conclusion/final words
I hope this introductory article gives an insight into coaching in a university sports society. My aim with this article was to bring attention to a topic which is perhaps (unfairly) disconnected from the academic community and to provide a blueprint for future coaches in a similar position to me. This article also showcases the value of postgraduate training courses such as APP PGR and their application beyond teaching. In particular, I appreciate the encouragement to self-reflect and learn from informed practices, which in this instance has allowed me to somewhat disentangle this "messy pedagogical practice", known as coaching.
Lastly, I believe engaging with societies and coaching provides the perfect opportunity for the postgraduate teaching community to practice and improve their teaching (time permitting!)